CHAPTER 15. Assignment from Mr. Tri Djoko Wahjono

1.      What Career Opportunities Are Available in the Computer Industry?

·         3D Animation or Graphic design

Description: A position where you design and create either a graphic or 3D animations for software programs, games, movies, web pages, etc. Position may also require that you work on existing graphics, animations, movies, etc. done by other people.

·         Customer service

Description: Helping customers with general questions relating to the company, ordering, status on orders, account information or status, etc.

·         Data Entry

Description: A job that commonly requires the employee to take information from a hard copy or other source and enter it into an electronic format. Position may also be taking electronic data and entering it into a database for easy sorting and locating.

·         Database

Description: A job that requires creating, testing, and maintaining one or more database.

Electronics technician or engineer

·         Engineer

Description: An engineer is someone who is at the top of their class and almost always someone who has or is working on a college degree or several certifications. Although used broadly in this document, the engineer is usually specified in the job requirement. For example, a software development engineer may be a highly skilled computer programmer.

·         Freelancer

Description: Thanks to the Internet its possible for anyone to become a freelancer and apply for one of the millions of positions available around the Internet. See our how to make money on the Internet page for a listing of online services that list work available for freelancers.

·         Hardware

Description: A position as a hardware designer, circuit design, embedded systems, firmware, etc. is a job that requires you to design and create a complete hardware package or portions of a hardware device.

·         Networking or System Administrator

Description: Computer networking jobs involve designing, setting up, and maintaining a network.

·         Programmer or Software developer

Description: A job that requires the development or continued development and maintenance of a software program.

·         Quality Assurance (QA), System analyst or Tester

Description: This job requires that the employee test out all features of a product for any problems or usability issues.

·         Repair and fix

Description: A job that requires you to fix and repair computer and computer equipment. Often this involves removing a component from within the computer and replacing it with a good component.

·         Sales

Description: Selling a product or service to another person or company.

Technical Support (Technician or Help Desk)

Description: Helping an end-user or company employee with their computers, software program, and hardware device. A technical support position is a great first step for people interested in working in the computer industry.

·         Technical Writing

Description: This position often involves creating or editing technical papers or manuals.

·         Security expert

Description: Test and find vulnerabilities in a system, hardware device, or software program.

·         Webmaster or Web Designer

Description: A job where a person creates, maintains, or completely designs a web page.

2.      What Are the Functions of Jobs in an IT Department?

Application Systems Analysis	Conducts technical analysis of application systems and specification of technical requirements for maintenance/enhancement activities.
Application Systems Development/Maintenance	Designs technical specifications and programming of application components for distributed applications. Monitors, updates and maintains applications.
Business Systems Analysis	Formulates and defines systems scope and objectives through research and fact-finding combined with an understanding of applicable business systems and industry requirements. Includes analysis of business and user needs, documenting requirements, and revising existing system logic difficulties as necessary.
Computer Operations	Monitors several servers, storage devices, and other input and output equipment. Executes backup and recovery procedures. Manages input and output media. Alerts technical support staff when problems occur. Escalates issues as appropriate. Monitors facility security.
Data Input	Verifies and corrects source documents. Inputs data from source documents.
Data Warehouse Administration	Designs and maintains database architecture, metadata, and data repositories.
Database Administration	Administers computerized databases. Directs backup and recovery of data and efficient and appropriate use of DBMS software and services.
Database Analysis/Design	Designs databases by working with users to develop data requirements. Creates and maintains database dictionaries, and assures efficient and appropriate use of DBMS software and services.
Decision Support Analysis	Analyzes and fulfills user requests for information from university and other data sources.
Department IT Administration	Administers information technology functions including but not limited to network management/administration, systems analysis, web, programming, database administration, server administration, computer and auxiliary operations.
Department Network Administration	Administers network activities and functions for a designated department or program. Uses information, software, hardware, policies, and procedures to plan, configure, operate, optimize, and troubleshoot networks of communicating devices. Coordinates activities with personnel at all levels including other campus network managers and core network administrators.
Documentation/Technical Writing	Develops and implements printed and online documentation including programming and operations documents, user manuals, and help screens.
End User Support	Provides first level automation support to unit/department. May include evaluation of hardware/software needs, training/documentation of automated processes and general computer support.
Help Desk/Information Center	Identifies, prioritizes, and resolves reported problems including voice, data, account administration, email, desktop, and institutional applications issues. Works with other support and technology groups to manage an effective triage and resolution procedure.
Information Security	Ensures the safety of information and information systems. Protects systems from intentional or inadvertent access or destruction. Identifies and establishes necessary campus policies and procedures.
Information Systems Auditing	Ensures that appropriate controls exist, that processing is efficient and accurate, and that information systems procedures are in compliance with institutional standards.
IT Project Management	Executes and develops project plans, goals, and budgets. Identifies resources required for complex information technology projects. Guides and performs strategic analysis for projects.
IT Staff Supervision	Provides direction, coaching, staff development, training and mentoring to assigned staff. Supervises two or more full-time employees, or their equivalent, on a regular basis. Makes decisions regarding hiring, evaluation, promotion and termination of employees, or makes related recommendations that are given particular weight.
Network Administration	Plans, designs, and implements communications networks for voice and data. Coordinates day-to-day operations, maintenance, monitoring, software installation, protocol configuration, and problem resolution.
Network Planning	Identifies changes and trends in network (routers, hubs, etc.) and systems technology. Develops relevant plans and proposals for the incorporation of trends into the campus infrastructure.
Network Security Administration	Plans, designs, and implements security procedures and standards for the data network. Coordinates day-to-day operations, maintenance, monitoring, software installation, protocol configuration, and problem resolution specifically focused on preventing and responding to security breaches.
Operating System Administration	Administers and directs installation, maintenance, configuration and integrity of operating system software. Administers network and disk configuration, data backup, security, software patches and upgrades.
Operations Administration	Administers, monitors and directs all aspects of the daily operation for data centers or similar operations. Assures appropriate input and back-up procedures are followed. Updates procedures. Corrects errors, troubleshoots and contacts vendors or systems staff as needed.
Operations Support	Provides technical support for data center or similar operations.
Production Control	Schedules batch jobs. Coordinates batch and online schedules. Performs basic quality assurance.
Research Computing: Graphics Consulting	Defines, designs, purchases and implements 2D and 3D interactive graphics systems, software tools and applications. Provides technical consulting and programming expertise for scientific visualization, 2D and 3D computer graphics, and virtual reality applications. Gives tours and demonstrations of virtual reality and scientific visualization technology. Provides instruction in the use of 3D graphics libraries, virtual reality programming libraries and scientific visualization applications.
Research Computing: Statistical Analysis / User Support	Assists users with experiment design, database design, software selection, data entry specifications, data collection design and data analysis. Conducts tutorials and workshops. Provides statistical and application support.
Research Computing: Systems Analysis / User Support	Designs, implements and supports new and High Performance Computing (HPC) ( i.e.. supercomputer) technologies. Designs, purchases and implements hardware and software tools and applications. Designs, implements and supports grid computing technology. Evaluates, extends and implements grid computing systems. Provides FORTRAN, user, grid application and programming support.
Research Computing: Workstation Support	Installs and configures UNIX / Linux operating systems including network and security. Designs, purchases and implements workstations. Installs and operates applications.
Server Administration	Designs server hardware configurations. Monitors and maintains server hardware. Coordinates procurement, maintenance and repair operations with vendors.
Systems Programming	Designs, develops and supports operating system utilities, messaging applications, and middleware systems. Installs and coordinates configuration of software packages.
Training	Conducts training and educational programs for information systems or user personnel.
Web Administration	Coordinates the integration of the web with other computer systems. Reviews web sites for adherence to organization specifications and standards. Troubleshoots system-related problems as needed.
Web Development/Maintenance	Designs and builds web pages using a variety of graphics software applications, techniques, and tools. Designs develops, and maintains user interface features and web page content.
Workstation Support	Provides workstation hardware and software technical support including peripherals such as printers and handheld devices. Coordinates acquisition, installation, and upgrades of end user hardware and software. Provides access to shared file, print, and backup services. May support applications. Assists with end user questions and problems. Researches and recommends new technology.

3.      How Are Trade Schools Different from Colleges?

Trade school: Technical schools teach the science behind the occupation, while vocational schools focus on hands-on application of skills needed to do the job. You may earn a diploma or a certificate, prepare for a licensing exam, or study to begin work as an apprentice or journeyman in a skilled trade, offers programs primarily in the areas of programming, Web design and development, graphics design, hardware maintenance, networking, personal computer support, and security. Students learn specific skills instead of taking a broad range of science and humanities courses, which can result in time savings for students.

4.      How Are the Various College Computer-Related Courses of Study Different?

Three broad disciplines in higher education produce the majority of entry- level employees in the computer industry.

·         Computer information systems (CIS), or information technology (IT), programs teach technical knowledge and skills and focus on how to apply these skills.

·         Computer science (CS) programs stress the theoretical side of programming and operating systems, computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.

·         Computer engineering (CE) is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture.

5.      How Can People Stay Current with Changing Technology?

A.    Get your hands on the new technology as soon as you can. Go to your local office supply store to test out display models.  Find a friend or coworker who can give you a quick demo of their latest gadget or device.

B.     Beta test new versions of software you use. A lot of software companies will offer a beta version of new software that you can demo or try for free even before the initial release to the public.  Test them out on your home computer so you’re already a proficient user when the upgrade finally rolls out at the office.  Most IT departments will look for internal staff to help beta test software for the company before it’s rolled out company-wide.  Talk with your IT staff and find out how you can be included in those opportunities at the office, too.  Volunteer to test it out at your desk first.

C.     Utilize the free online training tutorials and resources offered by many software and technology companies to help get you started.  YouTube.com is also packed full of free training and demonstrations if you search for them.  Microsoft also provides extensive free online training for all of their Office suite programs. You know your coworkers are going to be asking you questions about the software when they start using it anyway, so get a head start and begin mastering it as soon as you possibly can.

D.    Research software packages that you need to learn to remain competitive and LEARN THEM.  Consider website development training – basic website development, basic HTML, and blogging.  Learn how to utilize social media for business use. Almost every company is utilizing or shifting to web-based, collaborative platforms, and you need to understand how to use these technologies. Master the core Microsoft Office software programs, then dive into learning the premium suite programs that accompany it. If some of these skills haven’t shown up in your job description yet, it’s just a matter of time before they do.

E.     Talk to recruiters and human resources professionals to find out what skills their clients are looking for. Comb through the help wanted ads and job boards to see what skills are in demand for the types of positions you desire.  Ask your executives what skills they’d like you to develop further as you continue to support them. Better yet, assemble your list and give them some ideas of what you’d like to pursue and why.

F.      Watch the events section of your area newspapers for networking events or open houses hosted by local technology service providers or community colleges.  I love to attend technology related events where I can see the demos and try it for myself.  A lot of times I’m the ONLY administrative professional in the room full of I.T. professionals.  Sometimes I feel very out of place. But I view scoping out the latest technology and resources for my executives so I can tackle it before they start asking me questions about it as part of my responsibility.  I’ll take feeling a bit out of my comfort zone any day over feeling completely ignorant when I’m asked a question about technology my executives need help with.

G.    Subscribe to free newsletters or blog RSS feeds for technology based websites and publications

6.      What Are the Benefits of Certification for Employers, Employees, and Vendors?

·         For employers:

Certification is the objective, measurable way to ensure a professional employer has the knowledge to practice competently. Certification in something demonstrates a person who get certified has both specialized knowledge and experience, certification ensures quality workmanship standards and can help keep their workforce up to date with respect to computers and technology.

·         For employees,

Certification can enhance careers, provide better standing as industry professionals, and increase salaries.

·         For vendors,

Certification is a form of industry self-regulation that sets computer profession- also competence standards and raises the level of expertise and knowledge in the IT industry as a whole.

7.      How Can People Prepare for Certification?

1)      Take every practice test you can get your hands on.

I’ve taken many certification tests over the years, and in my opinion, this is the No. 1 thing you can do to help your chances of passing.

Not only does working through practice tests reinforce your knowledge of the subject, it puts you in an environment similar to what you’ll face on test day. You will start to understand how the test-writers think, and see the way in which questions are asked.

Practice tests can be found in books, on CDs, and all over the Internet. Find them. Take them.

2)      Time your tests.

You may not want to time your tests at first, but eventually, make it a habit. If you spend four hours taking a practice test that you will only have two hours to do in the testing center, you’ll be in for a big shock when you run out of time halfway through your exam.

Use a watch, kitchen timer, or your cell phone’s stopwatch function. Just make sure you do it. Taking a test under time pressure is completely different than strolling through the test, making sure you analyze each question for 10 minutes before deciding on an answer.

3)      Use multiple prep methods.

Don’t rely on just one certification book. Go to forums on websites like certcities.com, mcpmag.com and brainbuzz.com and talk to others who have taken the test recently. Find out what their experience was like. Try out computer-based training from companies like CBT Nuggets. Having multiple sources of information gives you a much better idea of what to expect.

4)      Get plenty of sleep the night before the test.

Does this sound obvious? Well, you’d be surprised at how many people spend the night before a certification test cramming, and show up at the test center bleary-eyed with their minds in a fog.

Studies have shown that being well-rested is a key factor in doing well on a test. Your mind is clear and refreshed, and you can focus and concentrate better, and for longer. Cramming is good; just do it in the days preceding the test, not the night before. That’s the time to recharge your internal batteries to go out and ace the exam.

5)      Find a study group.

Remember how well study groups worked in college? They work just as well when studying for a certification exam. Find a group of fellow techies at work who might be working on the same test and study during lunch, or on social sites like Craigslist. Also check out the forums on sites from certification vendors like Microsoft, Cisco, Red Hat, CompTIA and others.

6)      Don’t take the test until you’re ready.

What I mean by this is that you shouldn’t consider taking a certification exam until you have real-world experience with the technology being tested. Make sure you have several years of daily security experience.

Potential employers can usually sniff out “paper” certification holders a mile away. Those are certified individuals with no real-world experience; they passed the exam by studying books or videos, or taking a class. Paper certification holders are not only unlikely to get hired -- if they do somehow get a job, they’ll be completely unprepared to perform their job duties, because they’ve never done it in a live environment.

8.      What Are the General Areas of  IT Certification?

Certifications usually are classified based on the computer industry area to which they most closely relate:

·         Application software,

·         operating systems,

·         programmer/developer,

·         hardware,

·         networking,

·         digital forensics, 

·         security,

·         the Internet,

·         and database systems.

9.      What Are Some Specific IT Certifications in Each Certification Area?

A.    Application software certifications, sometimes called end-user certifications

·         Microsoft Certified Application Specialist (MCAS),

·         Microsoft Certified Application Professional (MCAP),

·         Microsoft Certified Desktop Support Technician (MCDST),

·         Adobe Certified Associate,

·         Adobe Certified Expert (ACE),

·         Adobe Certified Instructor (ACI)

·         IBM Certified Professional for Lotus Software.

B.     Operating system certifications include

·         IBM Certified Specialist,

·         Microsoft Certified IT Professional (MCITP),

·         Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist (MCTS),

·         Novell Certified Linux Professional (CLP),

·         Red Hat Certified Engineer (RHCE),

·         Red Hat Certified Technician (RHCT),

·         Sun Certified System Administrator (SCSA). 

C.     Programmer/developer certifications include 

·         Certified Software Development Professional (CSDP),

·         IBM Certified Solution Developer,

·         Microsoft Certified Professional Developer (MCPD),

·         Sun Certified Enterprise Architect (SCEA),

·         Sun Certified Java Developer (SC J D),

·         Sun Certified Java Programmer (SC J P),

·         Sun Certified Mobile Application Developer (SCMAD).

D.    Hardware certifications include

·         A +,

·         Dell Certified Systems Expert,

·         IBM eServer Certified Specialist.

·         Networking certifications include

·         Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA),

·         Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP),

·         Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert (CCIE),

·         Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator (MCSA),

·         Network +, Novell Certified Administrator (CNA),

·         Novell Certified Engineer (NCE),

·         Sun Certified Network Administrator (SCNA).

E.     Digital forensics certifications include

·         Certified Computer Examiner (CCE),

·         Certified Computer Forensics Examiner (CCFE),

·         Certified Electronic Evidence Collection Specialist (CEECS),

·         Certified Information Forensics Investigator (CIFI).

F.      Security certifications include

·         Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP),

·         Security Certified Network Architect (SCNA),

·         Security Certified Network Professional (SCNP),

·         Security Certified Network Specialist (SCNS),

·         Systems Security Certified Practitioner (SSCP).

·         Internet certifications include Certified Internet Webmaster (CIW)

·         Certified Web Professional (CWP).

G.    Database certifications include

·         IBM Certified Solutions Expert – DB2,

·         IBM Certified Solutions Expert – Informix,

·         Microsoft Certified IT Professional (MCITP),

·         Oracle Certified Professional (OCP)

·         Sybase Certified Professional.

CHAPTER 14. Assignment from Mr. Tri Djoko Wahjono

1.       What are the special information requirements of an enterprise-sized corporation?

A large organization, or enterprise, requires special computing solutions because of its size and geographical extent. Enterprise computing involves the use of computers in networks, such as LANs and WANs, or a series of interconnected networks to satisfy the information needs of an enterprise. Executive management, which includes the highest management positions in a company, needs information to make strategic decisions. Middle management, which is responsible for implementing the strategic decisions of executive management, needs information to make tactical decisions. Operational management, which supervises the production, clerical, and other non-management employees, needs information to make an operational decision that involves day-to-day activities. Non-management employees also need information to perform their jobs and make decisions.Managers use business intelligence (BI), business process management (BPM), andbusiness process automation (BPA) tools to focus on information that is important to the decision-making process.

2.       What Information Systems and Software Are Used in the Functional Units of an Enterprise?

An information system is a set of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce information. In an enterprise, the individual functional units have specialized requirements for their information systems. Accounting and financial systems manage transactions and help budget, forecast, and analyze. A human resources information system (HRIS) manages human resources functions. An employee relationship management (ERM) system automates and manages communications between employees and the business. Computer-aided design (CAD) assists engineers in product design, andcomputer-aided engineering (CAE) tests product designs. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) controls production equipment, and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) integrates operations in the manufacturing process. Material Requirements Planning (MRP) uses software to help monitor and control processes related to production. A quality control system helps an organization maintain or improve the quality of its products or services and typically includes quality control software. A marketing information system serves as a central repository for marketing tasks. Sales force automation (SFA) software equips salespeople with the electronic tools they need.Distribution systems control inventory, manage and track shipping, and provide information and analysis on warehouse inventory. Customer interaction management (CIM) software manages day-to-day interactions with customers. Web site management programs collect data to help organizations make informed decisions regarding their Web presence. Security software enables the IT department to limit access to sensitive information.

3.       What Information Systems Are Used throughout an Enterprise?

Some general purpose information systems, called enterprise-wide systems, are used throughout an enterprise. An office information system (OIS) enables employees to perform tasks using computers and other electronic devices. A transaction processing system (TPS) captures and processes data from day to day business activities. A management information system (MIS) generates accurate, timely, and organized information, so that users can make decisions, solve problems, supervise activities, and track progress. Adecision support system (DSS) helps users analyze data and make decisions. An expert system captures and stores the knowledge of human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision making. Customer relationship management (CRM) systems manage information about customers.  Enterprise resource planning (ERP) provides centralized, integrated software to help manage and coordinate the ongoing activities of an enterprise. A content management system (CMS) is a combination of databases, software, and procedures that organizes and allows access to various forms of documents and files

4.       What Are Types of Technologies Used throughout an Enterprise?

Technologies used throughout an enterprise include the following items. A portal is a collection of links, content, and services presented on a Web page and designed to guide users to related to their jobs. A data warehouse is a huge database that stores and manages the data required to analyze historical and current transactions. An enterprise’s communications infrastructure consists of hardware (such as wired and wireless network connections and devices, routers, firewalls, and servers), software (such as e-mail, instant messaging, VoIP, and server management), and procedures for using and managing hardware and software. An extranet allows customers or suppliers to access part of an enterprise’s intranet. Web services allow businesses to create products and B2B interactions over the Internet. Many enterprises employ a service is oriented architecture (SOA) to allow better communications and services between diverse information systems. A document management system (DMS) allows for storage and management of a company’s documents. A workflow application assists in the management and tracking of the activities in a business process from start to finish. A virtual private network (VPN) provides users with a secure connection to a company’s network server.

5.       What Are Virtualization, Cloud Computing, and Grid Computing?

Virtualization is the practice of sharing or pooling computing resources, such as servers and storage devices. Server virtualization provides the capability to divide a physical server logically into many virtual servers; storage virtualization provides the capability to create a single logical storage device from many physical storage devices. Cloud computing is an Internet service that provides computing needs to computer users. Grid computing, which often is used in research environments, combines many servers and /or personal computers on a network to act as one large computer. Cloud and grid computing usually charge a fee based on usage or processing time.

6.       What Are the Computer Hardware Needs and Solutions for an Enterprise?

Enterprise hardware allows large organizations to manage and share information and data using devices geared for maximum availability and efficiency. Enterprises use a variety of hardware types to meet their large-scale needs. A RAID (redundant array of independent disks) is a group of integrated disks that duplicates data and information to improve data reliability. Network attached storage (NAS) is a server that provides storage for users and information systems attached to the network. A storage area network (SAN) is a high speed network that provides storage to other servers. An enterprise storage system uses a combination of techniques to consolidate storage so that operations run efficiently. A blade server, sometimes called an ultradense server, packs a complete computer server on a single card, or blade, rather than a system unit. A thin client is a small, terminal-like computer that mostly relies on a server for data storage and processing.

7.       What Are High Availability, Scalability, and Interoperability?

The availability of hardware to users is a measure of how often it is online. A high-availability system continues running and performing at least 99 percent of the time. Scalability is the measure of how well computer hardware, software, or an information system can grow to meet an enterprise’s increasing performance demands. An information system often must share information, or have interoperability, with other information systems within the enterprise.

8.       Why Is Computer Backup Important, and How Is It Accomplished?

A backup duplicates a fi le or program to protect an enterprise if the original is lost or damaged. A full, or archival, backup copies all of the programs and files in a computer. A differential backup copies only files that have changed since the last full backup. An incremental backup copies only fi les that have changed since the last full or incremental backup. A selective, or partial, backup allows users to back up specific files. Continuous data protection (CDP), or continuous backup, is a backup plan in which data is backed up whenever a change is made. Backup procedures specify a regular plan

9.       What Are the Steps in a Disaster Recovery Plan?

A disaster recovery plan describes the steps a company would take to restore computer operations in the event of a disaster. A disaster recovery plan contains four components. Theemergency plan specifies the steps to be taken immediately after a disaster strikes. Thebackup plan stipulates how a company uses backup fi les and equipment to resume information processing. The recovery plan identifies the actions to be taken to restore full information processing operations. The test plan contains information for simulating disasters and recording an organization’s ability to recover.

CHAPTER 13. Assignment from Mr. Tri Djoko Wahjono

1. How are machine languages different from assembly languages?
Two types of low-level languages are machine languages and assembly languages. Machine language, known as the first generation of programming languages, is the only language the computer directly recognizes. Machine language instructions use a series of binary digits or a combination of numbers and letters that represents binary digits. The binary digits correspond to the on and off electrical states. As you might imagine, coding in machine language is tedious and time-consuming. With an assembly language, the second generation of programming languages, a programmer writes instructions using symbolic instruction codes. Symbolic instruction codes are meaningful abbreviations. With an assembly language, a programmer writes abbreviations such as A for addition, C for compare, L for load and M for multiply. Assembly languages also use symbolic addresses. A symbolic address is a meaningful name that identifies a storage location. For example, a programmer can use the name RATE to refer to the storage location that contains a pay rate.

2. What is the purpose of procedural programming languages, and what are the features of C and COBOL?
The disadvantages of machine and assembly (low-level) languages led to the development of procedural languages in the late 1950s and 1960s. In a procedural language, the programmer writes instructions that tell the computer what to accomplish and how to do it. With a procedural language, often called a third-generation language (3GL), a programmer uses a series of English-like words to write instructions. For example, ADD stands for addition or PRINT means to print. Many 3GLs also use arithmetic operators such as * for multiplication and 1 for addition. These English-like words and arithmetic symbols simplify the program development process for the programmer. The C programming language, developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Laboratories, originally was designed for writing system software. Today, many programs are written in C (Figure 13-6). This includes operating systems and application software such as word processing and spreadsheet programs. C is a powerful language that requires professional programming skills. Many programmers use C for business and scientific problems. C runs on almost any type of computer with any operating system, but it is used most often with the UNIX and Linux operating systems. COBOL (COmmon Business-Oriented Language) evolved out of a joint effort between the United States government, businesses, and major universities in the early 1960s (Figure 13-7). Naval officer Grace Hopper, a pioneer in computer programming, was a prime developer of COBOL. COBOL is a programming language designed for business applications. Although COBOL programs often are lengthy, their English-like statements make the code easy to read, write, and maintain. COBOL especially is useful for processing transactions, such as payroll and billing, on mainframe computers. COBOL programs also run on other types of computers.

3. What are the characteristics of object-oriented programming languages and program development tools?
Computer programmers use an object-oriented programming (OOP) language or objectoriented program development tool to implement an object-oriented design. Recall from Chapter 12 that an object is an item that can contain both data and the procedures that read or manipulate that data. An object represents a real person, place, event, or transaction. A major benefit of OOP is the ability to reuse and modify existing objects. For example, once a programmer creates an Employee object, it is available for use by any other existing or future program. Thus, programmers repeatedly reuse existing objects. For example, the payroll program and health benefits program both use the Employee object. That is, the payroll program would use it to process employee paychecks and the health benefits program would use it to process health insurance payments. Programs developed using the object-oriented approach have several advantages. The objects can be reused in many systems, are designed for repeated use, and become stable over time. In addition, programmers create applications faster because they design programs using existing objects.

4. What are the uses of other programming languages and other program development tools?
A 4GL ( fourth-generation language) is a nonprocedural language that enables users and programmers to access data in a database. With a nonprocedural language, the programmer writes English-like instructions or interacts with a graphical environment to retrieve data from files or a database. Nonprocedural languages typically are easier to use than procedural languages. Many object-oriented program development tools use 4GLs. One popular 4GL is SQL. As discussed in Chapter 10, SQL is a query language that allows users to manage, update, and retrieve data in a relational DBMS. These powerful languages allow database administrators to define a database and its structure. They also enable users to maintain and access the data in the database.

5. What are web page program development techniques such as HTML and XHTML, XML and WML, scripting languages, DHTML, Ruby on Rails, Web 2.0 Development, and web page authoring software?
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is a special formatting language that programmers use to format documents for display on the Web. You view a Web page written with HTML in a Web browser such as Internet Explorer, Safari, Firefox, Opera, or Google Chrome. Similarly, XHTML (extensible HTML) is a markup language that enables Web sites to be displayed more easily on microbrowsers in smart phones and other mobile devices, as well as on desktop and notebook computers. XHTML includes features of HTML and XML. XML (Extensible Markup Language) is an increasingly popular format for sharing data that allows Web developers to create customized tags, as well as use predefined tags, used for developing a single Web site whose content can be formatted to display appropriately on various devices. XML separates the Web page content from its format, allowing the Web browser to display the contents of a Web page in a form appropriate for the display device. For example, a smart phone, a PDA, and a notebook computer all could display the same XML page or use different formats or sections of the XML page. Wireless devices use a subset of XML called WML. WML (wireless markup language) allows Web developers to design pages specifically for microbrowsers. Many smart phones and other mobile devices use WML as their markup language. Programmers write scripts, applets, servlets, or ActiveX controls using a variety of languages. These include some of the languages previously discussed, such as Java, C++, C#, F#, and Visual Basic. Some programmers use scripting languages. A scripting language is an interpreted language that typically is easy to learn and use. Popular scripting languages include JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Rexx, Tcl, and VBScript. Dynamic HTML (DHTML) is a type of HTML that allows Web developers to include more graphical interest and interactivity in a Web page, without the Web page accessing the Web server. That is, the client’s computer automatically updates and changes its own content. These Web pages display much faster than Web pages created with HTML. Ruby on Rails (RoR), also called Rails, is an open source framework that provides technologies for developing object-oriented, database-driven Web sites. Rails uses a free, object-oriented scripting language called Ruby, which is derived from a variety of languages including Ada, LISP, Perl, and Smalltalk. Rails is designed to make Web developers more productive by providing them an easy-to-use environment and eliminating time-consuming steps in the Web development process. Web 2.0 sites often use RSS, previously discussed, and Ajax. Ajax, which stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML, is a method of creating interactive Web applications designed to provide immediate response to user requests. Instead of refreshing entire Web pages, Ajax works with the Web browser to update only changes to the Web page. This technique saves time because the Web application does not spend time repeatedly sending unchanged information across the network. Web page authoring software generates HTML and XHTML tags from your Web page design. With Web page authoring software, you can view or modify the HTML or XHTML associated with a Web page. Sometimes, you may add an HTML or XHTML tag that the Web page authoring software does not provide. Learning HTML and XHTML basics will enable you to fine-tune Web page formats created with authoring software.

6. How are popular multimedia authoring programs used?
Multimedia authoring software allows programmers to combine text, graphics, animation, audio, and video in an interactivepresentation. Many programmers use multimedia authoring software for computer based training (CBT) and Web-based training (WBT). Popular Web page authoring programs typically share similar features and are capable of creating similar applications. Popular programs include ToolBook and Director. ToolBook, from SumTotal Systems, has a graphical user interface and uses an object oriented approach, so that programmers can design multimedia applications using basic objects. These objects include buttons, fields, graphics, backgrounds, and pages. Director, from Adobe Systems, is a popular multimedia authoring program with powerful features that allow programmers to create highly interactive multimedia applications.

7. What are the six steps in the program development life cycle?
Program development consists of a series of steps programmers use to build computer programs. As Chapter 12 discussed, the system development life cycle guides information technology (IT) professionals through the development of an information system. Likewise, the program development life cycle (PDLC) guides computer programmers through the development of a program. The program development life cycle consists of six steps :
1. Analyze Requirements
2. Design Solution
3. Validate Design
4. Implement Design
5. Test Solution
6. Document Solution
The steps in the program development life cycle form a loop. Program development is an ongoing process within system development. Each time someone identifies errors in or improvements to a program and requests program modifications, the Analyze Requirements step begins again. When programmers correct errors or add enhancements to an existing program, they are said to be maintaining the program. Program maintenance is an ongoing activity that occurs after a program has been delivered to users, or placed into production.

8. How is structured design different from object oriented design?
In structured design, sometimes called top-down design, the programmer typically begins with a general design and moves toward a more detailed design. This approach breaks down the original set of requirements into smaller, more manageable sections. The first step in top-down design is to identify the major function of a program, sometimes called the main routine or main module. Next, the programmer decomposes (breaks down) the main routine into smaller sections, called subroutines or modules. Then, the programmer analyzes each subroutine to determine if it can be decomposed further. With object-oriented (OO) design, the programmer packages the data and the program (or procedure) into a single unit, an object. When the structure of an object changes, any program that accesses the object automatically accesses the change. The concept of packaging data and procedures into a single object is called encapsulation. That is, an object encapsulates (hides) the details of the object.

9. What are the basic control structures and design tools used in designing solutions to programming problems?
To help document a solution algorithm, programmers use design tools. Two structured design tools are program flowcharts and pseudocode. A design tool for object-oriented design is the UML.
• A program flowchart, or simply flowchart, graphically shows the logic in a solution algorithm. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published a set of standards for program flowcharts in the early 1960s. These standards, still used today, specify symbols for various operations in a program’s logic. Programmers connect most symbols on a program flowchart with solid lines. These lines show the direction of the program. Dotted lines on a flowchart connect comment symbols. A comment symbol, also called an annotation symbol, explains or clarifies logic in the solution algorithm.
• Pseudocode uses a condensed form of English to convey program logic. Some programmers prefer to explain the logic of a solution algorithm with words (pseudocode), instead of a graphical flowcharting technique. Pseudo code also uses indentation to identify the control structures. The beginning and ending of the module start at the left margin.

CHAPTER 12. Assignment from Mr. Tri Djoko Wahjono

1.What Is System Development, and What Are the System Development Phases?
System development is a set of activities used to build an information system. Some system development activities may be performed concurrently. Others are performed sequentially. Depending on the type and complexity of the information system, the length of each activity varies from one system to the next. In some cases, some activities are skipped entirely.
System development activities often are grouped into larger categories called phases. This collection of phases sometimes is called the system development life cycle (SDLC). Many SDLCs contain five phases:
1. Planning
2. Analysis
3. Design
4. Implementation
5. Operation, Support, and Security
Each phase of system development consists of a series of activities, and the phases form a loop. The loop forms when the operation, support, and security phase points to the planning phase. This connection occurs when the information system requires changing. A variety of situations can lead to a change in the information system.

2. What Are Guidelines for System Development?
1. Group activities or tasks into phases: Many SDLCs contain the same phases. Others have more or fewer phases. Regardless, all SDLCs have similar activities. Some SDLCs separate these activities in an additional phase called Construction and Testing. Other differences among SDLCs are the terminology they use, the order of their activities, and the level of detail within each phase.
2. Involve users: Users include anyone for whom the system is being built. Customers, employees, students, data entry clerks, accountants, sales managers, and owners all are examples of users. You, as a user, might interact with an information system at your bank, library, grocery store, fitness center, work, and school. The system development team members must remember they ultimately deliver the system to the user. If the system is to be successful, the user must be included in system development. Users are more apt to accept a new system if they contribute to its design.
3. Define standards: Standards are sets of rules and procedures an organization expects employees to accept and follow. Standards help people working on the same project produce consistent results. For example, one programmer might refer to a product number in a database as a product ID. Others may call it a product identification number, product code, and so on. If standards are defined, then everyone involved uses the same terms, such as product number. Standards often are implemented by using a data dictionary.

3. Why Are Project Management, Feasibility Assessment, Documentation, and Data and Information Gathering Techniques Important?
Project management is the process of planning, scheduling, and then controlling the activities during system development. The goal of project management is to deliver an acceptable system to the user
in an agreed-upon time frame, while maintaining costs. For larger projects, project management activities often are separated between a project manager and a project leader. Some organizations use extreme project management. The project leader identifies the scope of the project, required activities, time estimates, cost estimates, the order of activities, and activities that can take place simultaneously. The project leader records this information in a project plan.
Feasibility is a measure of how suitable the development of a system will be to the organization. A systems analyst typically uses four tests to evaluate feasibility of a project: operational feasibility, which measures how well the proposed system will work; schedule feasibility, which measures whether established project deadlines are reasonable; technical feasibility, which measures whether the organization has or can obtain the hardware, software, and people to deliver and then support the system; and economic feasibility, also called cost/benefit feasibility, which measures whether the lifetime benefits of the proposed system will be greater than its lifetime costs.
Documentation is the collection and summarization of data and information and includes reports, diagrams, programs, or other deliverables. A project notebook contains all documentation for a single project.
 To gather data and information, systems analysts and other IT professionals review documentation, observe, survey, interview, participate in joint-application design ( JAD) sessions, and research.

4. What Activities Are Performed in the Planning Phase?
During the planning phase, four major activities are performed: (1) review and approve the project requests; (2) prioritize the project requests; (3) allocate resources such as money, people, and equipment to approved projects; and (4) form a project development team for each approved project.
The projects that receive the highest priority are those mandated by management or some other governing body. These requests are given immediate attention. The steering committee evaluates the remaining project requests based on their value to the organization. The steering committee approves some projects and rejects others. Of the approved projects, it is likely that only a few will begin system development immediately. Others will have to wait for additional funds or resources to become available.

5.What Is the Purpose of Activities Performed in the Analysis Phase?
(1)   conduct a preliminary investigation
The main purpose of the preliminary investigation, sometimes called the feasibility study, is to determine the exact nature of the problem or improvement and decide whether it is worth pursuing. In this phase, the systems analyst defines the problem or improvement accurately. The actual problem may be different from the one suggested in the project request. The first activity in the preliminary investigation is to interview the user who submitted the project request. Depending on the nature of the request, project team members may interview other users, too. In the case of the school, members of the team might interview the controller for data entry and quality control costs. They also might interview one or two registration clerks, quality control clerks, instructors, and students.


(2)   perform detailed analysis.
Detailed analysis involves three major activities: (1) study how the current system works; (2) determine the users’ wants, needs, and requirements; and (3) recommend a solution. Detailed analysis sometimes is called logical design because the systems analysts develop the proposed solution without regard to any specific hardware or software. That is, they make no attempt to identify the procedures that should be automated and those that should be manual. During these activities, systems analysts use all of the data and information gathering techniques. They review documentation, observe employees and machines, distribute surveys, interview employees, conduct JAD sessions, and research. An important benefit from these activities is that they build valuable relationships among the systems analysts and users. A major task for the systems analyst is to document these findings in a way that can be understood by everyone.
Both users and IT professionals refer to this documentation.

6.What Are Tools Used in Process Modeling?
Tools that a systems analyst uses for process modeling include entity-relationship diagrams, data flow diagrams, and the project dictionary.
Entity-Relationship Diagrams
 An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a tool that graphically shows the connections among entities in a system. An entity is an object in the system that has data. It is important that the systems analyst has an accurate understanding of the system. The systems analyst reviews the ERD with the user. After users approve the ERD, the systems analyst identifies data items associated with an entity.
Data Flow Diagrams
A data flow diagram (DFD) is a tool that graphically shows the flow of data in a system. The key elements of a DFD are the data flows, the processes, the data stores, and the sources.
Project Dictionary
The project dictionary, sometimes called the repository, contains all the documentation and deliverables of a project. The project dictionary helps everyone keep track of the huge amount of details in a system. The dictionary explains every item found on DFDs and ERDs. Each process, data store, data flow, and source on every DFD has an entry in the project dictionary.

7.What Are Tools Used in Object Modeling?
Object modeling, sometimes called object-oriented (OO) analysis and design, combines the data with processes that act on the data into a single unit, called an object. Object modeling can use the same tools as those used in process modeling, but the UML (Unified Modeling Language) has been adopted as a standard notation for object modeling and development. Two common tools in the UML are the use case diagram and the class diagram. A use case diagram graphically shows how actors interact with the information system. An actor is a user or other entity, and the use case is the function that the actor can perform. A class diagram graphically shows classes and one or more lower levels, called subclasses, in a system. Lower levels (subclasses) contain attributes of higher levels (classes) in a concept called inheritance.

8.What Activities Are Performed in the Design Phase?
The design phase consists of two major activities: (1) if necessary, acquire hardware and software and (2) develop all of the details of the new or modified information system
Acquire hardware and software ;when the steering committee approves a solution, the systems analyst begins the activity of obtaining  additional hardware or software or evaluating cloud storage providers that offer the hardware or software to meet the organization’s needs. The activity consists of four major tasks: (1) identify technical specifications, (2) solicit vendor proposals, (3) test and evaluate vendor proposals, and (4) make a decision. Detailed design includes developing designs for the databases, inputs, outputs, and programs. During detailed design, many systems analysts use a prototype, which is a working model of the proposed system. Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) products are tools designed to support one or more activities of system development.

9.Why Is Program Development Part of System Development?
During the design phase, an organization can purchase packaged software, which is mass-produced, copyrighted, prewritten software. If suitable packaged software is not available, however, a company may opt for custom software, which is application software developed at the user’s request to match the user’s requirements exactly. Programmers write custom software from the program specification package created during the analysis phase, following an organized set of activities known as the program development life cycle.

10. What Activities Are Performed in the Implementation Phase?
The purpose of the implementation phase is to construct, or build, the new or modified system and then deliver it to the users. System developers perform four major activities in this phase: (1) develop programs, (2) install and test the new system, (3) train users, and (4) convert to the new system.
The program development life cycle follows these six steps: (1) analyze the requirements, (2) design the solution, (3) validate the design, (4) implement the design, (5) test the solution, and (6) document the solution.
Systems analysts and users develop test data so that they can perform various tests. The test data should include both valid (correct) and invalid (incorrect) data. When valid test data is entered, the program should produce the correct results. Invalid test data should generate an error. Tests performed during this step include unit tests, systems tests, integration tests, and acceptance tests.
Users must be trained properly on a system’s functionality. Training involves showing users exactly how they will use the new hardware and software in the system. Some training takes place as one-on-one sessions or classroom style lectures.
The final implementation activity is to change from the old system to the new system. This change can take place using one or more of the following conversion strategies: direct, parallel, phased, or pilot.

11. What Activities Are Performed in the Operations, Support, and Security Phase?

The purpose of the operation, support, and security phase is to provide ongoing assistance for an information system and its users after the system is implemented. The operations, support, and security phase consists of three major activities: (1) perform maintenance activities, (2) monitor system performance, and (3) assess system security. Organizations today often have a chief security officer (CSO) who is responsible for physical security of an organization’s property and people and also is in charge of securing computing resources. The CSO develops a computer security plan, which summarizes in writing all safeguards that protect the organization’s information assets.

CHAPTER 11. Assignment from Mr. Tri Djoko Wahjono

1. What are Computer Security Risks, and what are the types of Cybercrime Perpetrators?
Computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss of or damage to computer hardware, software, data, information, or processing capability. While some breaches to computer security are accidental, many are intentional. Some intruders do no damage; they merely access data, information, or programs on the computer before logging off. Other intruders indicate some evidence of their presence either by leaving a message or by deliberately altering or damaging data.
Any illegal act involving a computer generally is referred to as a computer crime. The term cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts. Perpetrators of cybercrime and other intrusions fall into seven basic categories: hacker, cracker, script kiddies, corporate spy, unethical employee, cyber extortionist, and cyber terrorist.

2. What are various Internet and Networking Attacks, and how can Users Safeguard against these attacks?
Various internet and networking attacks are: computer virus, worm, Trojan horse, and rootkit.
A computer virus is a potentially damaging computer program that affects, or infects, a computer negatively by altering the way the computer works without the user’s knowledge or permission. A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly, for example in memory or on a network, using up resources and possibly shutting down the computer or network. A Trojan horse (named after the Greek myth) is a program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program. A certain condition or action usually triggers the Trojan horse. Unlike a virus or worm, a Trojan horse does not replicate itself to other computers. A rootkit is a program that hides in a computer and allows someone from a remote location to take full control of the computer. Once the rootkit is installed, the rootkit author can execute programs, change settings, monitor activity, and access files on the remote computer.
To take precautions against those malware, do not start a computer with removable media in the drives or ports. Never open an e-mail attachment unless you are expecting the attachment and it is from a trusted source. Disable macros in documents that are not from a trusted source. Install an antivirus program and a personal firewall. Stay informed about any new virus alert or virus hoax. To defend against a botnet, a denial of service attack, improper use of a back door, and spoofing, users can install a firewall, install intrusion detection software, and set up a honeypot.

3. What are techniques to prevent Unauthorized Computer Access and Use?
Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission. Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or illegal activities. Organizations can take measures such as implementing a written acceptable use policy (AUP), a firewall, intrusion detection software, an access control, and an audit trail. Access controls include a user name and password or passphrase, a CAPTCHA, a possessed object, and a biometric device.
Organizations take several measures to help prevent unauthorized access and use. At a mini mum, they should have a written acceptable use policy (AUP) that outlines the computer activities for which the computer and network may and may not be used. An organization’s AUP should specify the acceptable use of computers by employees for personal reasons. Some organizations prohibit such use entirely. Others allow personal use on the employee’s own time such as a lunch hour.
To protect your personal computer from unauthorized intrusions, you should disable file and printer sharing on your Internet connection. Other measures that safeguard against unauthorized access and use include firewalls and intrusion detection software, which were discussed in the previous section, and identifying and authenticating users.

4. What are safeguard against Hardware Theft and Vandalism?
Hardware theft and vandalism are other types of computer security risks. Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment. Hardware vandalism is the act of defacing or destroying computer equipment.
To help reduce the chances of theft, companies and schools use a variety of security measures. Physical access controls, such as locked doors and windows, usually are adequate to protect the equipment. Many businesses, schools, and some homeowners install alarm systems for additional security. School computer labs and other areas with a large number of semi frequent users often attach additional physical security devices such as cables that lock the equipment to a desk, cabinet, or floor. Small locking devices also exist that require a key to access a hard disk or optical disc drive. Some businesses use a real time location system (RTLS) to track and identify the location of high-risk or high-value items.

5. How do software manufacturers protect against software piracy?
To protect themselves from software piracy, software manufacturers issue users license agreements. A license agreement is the right to use the software. That is, you do not own the software. The license agreement provides specific conditions for use of the software, which a user must accept before using the software. These terms usually are displayed when you install the software. In an attempt to prevent software piracy, Microsoft and other manufacturers have incorporated an activation process into many of their consumer products. During the product activation, which is conducted either online or by telephone, users provide the software product’s 25-character identification number to receive an installation identification number unique to the computer on which the software is installed. Usually, the software does not function or has limited functionality until you activate it via the Internet or telephone.
                                                                           
6. How does encryption work, and why it is necessary?
Encryption is a process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent unauthorized access. You treat encrypted data just like any other data. That is, you can store it or send it in an e-mail message. In the encryption process, the unencrypted, readable data is called plaintext. The encrypted (scrambled) data is called ciphertext. An encryption algorithm, or cypher, is a set of steps that can convert readable plaintext into unreadable ciphertext. Encryption programs typically use more than one encryption algorithm, along with an encryption key. Encryption is used to protect information on the Internet and networks.

7. What types of devices are available to protect computers from system failure?
A system failure is the prolonged malfunction of a computer. System failure also can cause loss of hardware, software, data, or information. A variety of causes can lead to system failure. A common cause of system failure is an electrical power variation such as noise, an undervoltage, or an overvoltage.
To protect against electrical power variations, use a surge protector. A surge protector, also called a surge suppressor, uses special electrical components to smooth out minor noise, provide a stable current flow, and keep an overvoltage from reaching the computer and other electronic equipment. For additional electrical protection, some users connect an uninterruptible power supply to the computer. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that contains surge protection circuits and one or more batteries that can provide power during a temporary or permanent loss of power. A UPS connects between your computer and a power source.

8. What are options for backing up computer resources?
To protect against data loss caused by system failure or hardware/software/information theft, computer users should back up files regularly. A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed. Thus, to back up a file means to make a copy of it. In the case of system failure or the discovery of corrupted files, you restore the files by copying the backed up files to their original location on the computer.
You can use just about any media to store backups. Be sure to use high-quality media. A good choice for a home user might be optical discs or external hard disks. Home and business users keep backup copies offsite so that a single disaster, such as a fire, does not destroy both the original and the backup copy of the data. An offsite location can be a safe deposit box at a bank or a briefcase. A growing trend is to use cloud storage as an offsite location. Most backup programs for the home user provide for a full backup and a selective backup. Some users implement a three-generation backup policy to preserve three copies of important files.

9.What risks and safeguards are associated with wireless communications?
Although wireless access provides many conveniences to users, it also poses additional security risks. One study showed that about 80 percent of wireless networks have no security protection. Some perpetrators connect to other’s wireless networks to gain free Internet access; others may try to access an organization’s confidential data.
In one technique, called war driving or access point mapping, individuals attempt to detect wireless networks via their notebook computer or mobile device while driving a vehicle through areas they suspect have a wireless network. Some individuals instead use war flying, where they use airplanes instead of vehicles to detect unsecured wireless networks. Once located, some individuals use a GPS device to add the WAP to a war driving access point map on the Internet, making the wireless network vulnerable.
In addition to using firewalls, some safeguards that improve the security of wireless networks include reconfiguring the wireless access point and ensuring equipment uses one or more wireless security standards such as Wi-Fi Protected Access and 802.11i.
• A wireless access point (WAP) should be configured so that it does not broadcast a network name, known as an SSID (service set identifier). Users should change the default SSID to prevent unauthorized users from accessing their wireless network. The WAP also can be programmed so that only certain devices can access it.
• Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is a security standard that improves on older security standards by authenticating network users and providing more advanced encryption techniques.
• An 802.11i network, sometimes called WPA2, the most recent network security standard, conforms to the government’s security standards and uses more sophisticated encryption techniques than WPA.

10. How can health-related disorders and injuries due to computer use be prevented?
A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an injury or disorder of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and joints. Computer-related RSIs include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome. For prevented this, OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has developed industry-specific and task-specific guidelines designed to prevent workplace injuries with respect to computer usage.
Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon due to repeated motion or stress on that tendon. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of the nerve that connects the forearm to the palm of the wrist. Repeated or forceful bending of the wrist can cause CTS or tendonitis of the wrist. Symptoms of tendonitis of the wrist include extreme pain that extends from the forearm to the hand, along with tingling in the fingers. Symptoms of CTS include burning pain when the nerve is compressed, along with numbness and tingling in the thumb and first two fingers.  You can take many precautions to prevent these types of injuries. Take frequent breaks during the computer session to exercise your hands and arms. To prevent injury due to typing, place a wrist rest between the keyboard and the edge of your desk. To prevent injury while using a mouse, place the mouse at least six inches from the edge of the desk. In this position, your wrist is flat on the desk. Finally, minimize the number of times you switch between the mouse and the keyboard, and avoid using the heel of your hand as a pivot point while typing or using the mouse.
Another type of health-related condition due to computer usage is computer vision syndrome (CVS). You may have CVS if you have sore, tired, burning, itching, or dry eyes; blurred or double vision; distance blurred vision after prolonged staring at a display device; headache or sore neck; difficulty shifting focus between a display device and documents; difficulty focusing on the screen image; color fringes or after-images when you look away from the display device; and increased sensitivity to light. To ease eyestrain, take these techniques:
• Every 10 to 15 minutes, take an eye break.
- Look into the distance and focus on an object for 20 to 30 seconds.
- Roll your eyes in a complete circle.
- Close your eyes and rest them for at least one minute.
• Blink your eyes every five seconds.
• Place your display device about an arm’s length away from your eyes with the top of the screen at eye level or below.
• Use large fonts.
• If you wear glasses, ask your doctor about computer glasses.
• Adjust the lighting.

11.What are issues related to information accuracy, intellectual property rights, codes of conduct, and green computing?
Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information systems. Seven frequently discussed areas of computer ethics are unauthorized use of computers and networks, software theft (piracy), information accuracy, intellectual property rights, codes of conduct, information privacy, and green computing.
Information accuracy today is a concern because many users access information maintained by other people or companies, such as on the Internet. Be aware that the organization providing access to the information may not be the creator of the information. In addition to concerns about the accuracy of computer input, some individuals and organizations raise questions about the ethics of using computers to alter output, primarily graphical output such as a retouched photo. Using graphics equipment and software, users easily can digitize photos and then add, change, or remove images.
Intellectual property rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work. A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish, and sell their materials. A copyright protects any tangible form of expression. A common infringement of copyright is piracy. People pirate (illegally copy) software, movies, and music. Many areas are not clear cut with respect to the law, because copyright law gives the public fair use to copyrighted material. The issues surround the phrase, fair use, which allows use for educational and critical purposes.
IT code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific computer action is ethical or unethical.
Green computing involves reducing the electricity and environmental waste while using a computer. People use, and often waste, resources such as electricity and paper while using a computer.

12.What are issues surrounding information privacy?
Information privacy is the right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them. Issues surrounding information privacy include the following. An electronic profile combines data about an individual’s Web use with data from public sources, which then is sold. A cookie is a file that a Web server stores on a computer to collect data about the user. Spyware is a program placed on a computer that secretly collects information about the user. Adware is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-up window. Spam is an unsolicited e-mail message or newsgroup posting sent to many recipients or newsgroups at once. Phishing is a scam in which a perpetrator attempts to obtain personal or financial information. The concern about privacy has led to the enactment of many federal and state laws regarding the disclosure of data. As related to the use of computers, social engineering is defined as gaining unauthorized access or obtaining confidential information by taking advantage of the trusting human nature of some victims and the naivety of others. Employee monitoring uses computers to observe, record, and review an employee’s computer use. Content filtering restricts access to certain materials on the Web.